There is no reason not to take a full breath- it's free, it costs nothing!
- Arnold Jacobs
from Daniel Borgue: Technicor
Daniel Bourgue (1937-2023) was solo horn of the Orchestre du Théâtre National de l’Opéra de Paris from 1964 to 1989.
It is through respiration that we absorb our vital energy - the energy needed to preserve life and health through complete regeneration of every cell in the body (absorption of oxygen and elimination of carbon dioxide), and also the energy needed for an sustained effort. This is why horn players must, before all else, learn to control and improve our breathing.
The total lung capacity of an average individual is about 5 liters of air. The residual air, i.e. that which remains permanently in the lungs, is about 1.5 liters, leaving us a useful volume of about 3.5. In normal breathing, however, the average person uses only 1/10 of their lung capacity at each breath. This is quite insufficient when playing an instrument such as the horn.
In playing, the rhythm of breathing is completely different - the performer breathes in more quickly and out more slowly. In addition, the volume of air used and lung pressure when breathing out are much higher than they are normally. The respiratory muscles must therefore adapt so that pressure is sustained throughout playing.
The diaphragm, in addition to its respiratory function (similar to that of a pump), compresses the viscera when it is lowered to promote venous circulation from the abdomen towards the thorax.
There are three levels of respiration:
1) Deep respiration (diaphragmatic)
2) Medium respiration (thoracic)
3) Superficial respiration (clavicular)
We generally use only thoracic breathing when we are awake. However, diaphragmatic (or abdominal respiration) is the most natural way of breathing and can be observed in animals and young children. This is also how we breathe when we are asleep.
The diaphragm is a muscle separating the abdomen from the thorax. Its function is purely respiratory and it moves vertically. When it is lowered, air fills the lower part of the lungs (increasing the volume of air absorbed). When it is raised, it drives the air out. Its action is thus similar to that of the piston of a bicycle pump or a syringe.
Ideally, the first warming-up exercise every day should be a breathing exercise. Here is a very simple one that's purpose is to make the player aware of the different types of respiration as well as regulate anxiety.
Breathe in through the nose and out through the mouth preferably while lying down. To aid concentration and obtain the most benefit, do this exercise with a metronome set at ♩= 60 or at the rate of your heartbeat.
1) Empty your lungs to the maximum.
2) Breathe in deeply for 3 counts, starting with the bottom of the lungs. The abdomen will become slightly distended. Continue breathing in, expanding the thorax. Raise the shoulders slightly to fill the lop of the lungs.
3) Hold your breath for 12 seconds to increase gaseous exchanges.
4) Breath out for 6 counts, starting with the top (lower the shoulders), then the middle and finally the abdomen.
Repeat the cycle several times. With a little training you will easily be able to multiply the counts by two, four or more. This should be effortless. Do not strain, particularly at the beginning.
ABDOMINAL RESPIRATION
Breathing in
Breathe in as much air as possible through the mouth as quickly as possible and hold it in the lower part of the lungs. The throat must be wide open. To do this, think of the sound "Ho". Concentrate on the sound made by the air as enters the windpipe. It must not be a high whistling sound (a sign that throat is contracted), but deep. If it makes you yawn, it shows that you are breathing deeply.
Feel your abdominal muscles below the navel and notice if the are tensed (but not contracted) while you are breathing in. The abdomen above the navel expands slightly during breathing in.
It is very important for the muscles lying beneath the navel, known as the abdominal belt, are tensed, because they will form the starting point for correct breathing out. This will increase pressure inside the abdomen, and this pressure will be very useful, particularly in the high register.
Be careful not to raise the shoulders while breathing in, as air held in the upper and central parts of the lungs is useless for breathing out while playing. On the contrary, it is harmful, because it causes tension in the throat and face.
Breathing out
To prevent contraction and jerkiness, there must be no break between breathing in and breathing out. (This smoothness is absolutely essential for rapid breathing in which the musical phrase is not interrupted). Push forwards, maintaining constant pressure of the abdominal muscles and constant tension of the diaphragm.
It is important not to pull in the abdomen because, contrary to what is widely believed, the thrust of the diaphragm is vertical, not horizontal. Pulling in the abdomen while breathing out inevitably causes slackening of the diaphragm and loss of pressure. This means a large proportion of the air breathed in can't be used, and the player will have to expel this stale residual air before he breathes in again.
Blow into the mouthpiece in the playing position, but with the lips apart so that no sound is produced. The throat and in particular the opening between the vocal cords (the glottis) must be relaxed. To do this, think of the sound "HA" all the time you are breathing out. The H will also create slight pressure in the diaphragm as soon as the note starts to be produced. The sound held will be
more stable and even from the beginning.
To start with, repeat this exercise several times concentrating only on breath production, the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm. Be conscious of every movement of you body. The facial muscles should not move during breathing out, nor must the lips, which must remain motionless, in the playing position.
Then continue the same exercise, vibrating the lips in the mouthpiece with the breath alone, without attacking or tonguing, always thinking of the sound "HA" and breathing out gently.
BREATH CONTROL
Just as the quality and stability of the sound of a string instrument depend on the bow, a wind instrument's sound is directly related to the breath. This air column also has a vital function in brass instruments. It is by adjusting its intensity and pressure that we change from one register to another, and play smooth legato and light, flexible staccato.
How do we adjust this air column? It is done neither with the lips, whose sole function is to vibrate like a double reed, nor with the diaphragm, which only maintains constant pressure. We are going to use the phonatory organs, principally the tongue and glottis (the opening between the vocal cords). It may seem difficult to control the opening of the glottis. In fact this can be done very easily by using vowels, as in speaking or singing. We shall do it essentially with the tongue, the most flexible and mobile of all organs. Its importance in producing sounds is so obvious that the word is also used to mean language.
The vowels can be roughly grouped in three categories :
Low: "ah" (as in awe)
Middle: "eh" (as in bed)
High: "ee" (as in machine).
Each of these vowels (ah, eh, ee) is produced by a particular position of the tongue in the buccal cavity. If we take the vowel "ah" as a starting point, the tongue is almost flat in the mouth. In this position, the two resonators formed by the mouth and pharynx have the same volume.
When we proceed from "ah" and then from "eh" to "ee", the tongue gradually rises towards the palate, reducing the volume of the mouth and increasing that of the pharynx. The use of vowels in playing serves two purposes - it increases pressure in the high register and at the same time it opens the pharynx more widely.
The different positions of the tongue in pronouncing vowels and the volumes of the resonators in each position. We shall therefore use these vowels with these exercises in flexibility in all the registers, taking "ah" as a starting point for the low register and "ee" for the high. The change from one vowel to the other will be made gradually and imperceptibly via the mid-vowel "eh".
In the high register it is also essential to think of these vowels as though they were being sung falsetto. This has the effect of contracting the uvula and thus closing the nasal fossae. It saves energy and gives the air column extra pressure. In addition, in this action, the soft palate lifts, increasing the volume of the pharynx.
The tongue should be behind the teeth. It acts as a valve, releasing the air at each emission. The movement must be quick and flexible, particularly for staccato. This movement of the tip of the tongue must therefore be a downward one, and not from front to back.
In the pronunciation of vowels, the tongue is raised towards the palate, but the lip remains motionless behind the teeth. In falsetto singing, the uvula prevents the air from entering the nasal fossae. Start each of these exercises by singing. This will give you experience of faster and clearer performance by vowel change, particularly for trills and wide intervals.
Continue the exercises with the mouthpiece alone, observing yourself in a mirror. Find the ideal angle between the mouthpiece and your lips, giving the greatest vibration. The facial expression shows what the performer feel when he plays. A frown, and looking upwards during a rising phrase often show a contracted throat (this can be remedied by changing to falsetto). It is by concentrating on yourself that, through breath control, you will gradually achieve more relaxed, flexible, precise playing, opening the way to a more expressive performance.
from Gunther Schuller: Horn Technique
Inhaling should be done, especially at phrase beginnings, in a very relaxed yet lung-filling manner. The hasty, jerking breath tends to tighten neck, shoulder, and stomach muscles.
In general (and this is one of the most important factors in correct breathing) the taking in of air should always occur in time to the music being performed. This will insure relaxed inhaling, and will give to the breathing process a musicality specifically identified with the music being played. After a while, it gives the player an instinctive sense of timing in the several coordinated actions necessary prior to attacking a note, which will enable him almost to guarantee a note.
The end of the inhaling process should be as closely connected as possible to the beginning of the breathing out of air. Both inhaling and exhaling should be thought of as a single uninterrupted act.
Hesitating between breathing in and expelling the air again serves no purpose other than to tighten various body muscles which should remain in a state of "relaxed tension" for free, natural playing. There is one exception, however. In the upper register, most players on an initial attack like to hesitate for the purpose of tightening the diaphragm into a strong supporting position. However, I wish to emphasize that this momentary hesitation is measured in fractions of a second, and is not long enough to choke back the air stream, unnecessarily tightening the neck and shoulder muscles.
At this point I must digress for a while to speak about the role of the 'diaphragm' in breathing. This term is bandied about a great deal, but in general many teachers and players still do not properly understand the nature and function of the diaphragm.
The diaphragm is a muscle which is situated in a horizontal position directly above the waist, and is shaped somewhat ike a shallow round tent. The '"dome" of this tent is flattened out when we inhale, thus allowing the lower lungs to fill with air. And like all muscles, the diaphragm muscle, once contracted or expanded, must return to its original position and natural degree of tension. It is this natural tendency of the diaphragm to contract, after having been expanded, that is the prime factor in achieving what we call "breath control". The diaphragm is the only muscle with which the release of air from the lungs can be controlled, since the diaphragm is the only major muscle touching the lower lungs. This is also why breathing by filling only the upper part of the lungs(chest breathing) is dangerous in horn playing. There are no muscles in the chest which can exert pressure on the lungs with relaxed control. Therefore the air issues from the lungs in an uncontrolled haphazard manner. In horn playing the process of inhaling and exhaling is actually a more or less intensified version of normal everyday breathing, which even the casual observer will note as a slight alternating in-and-out of the abdominal muscles.
In horn playing these movements are larger and more intense. But beyond this intensification, it is well to remember that the basic procedure is exactly the same as in normal breathing.
In normal inhaling only the lower section of the lungs is filled. The diaphragm muscle (tangent to the lungs) and adjacent abdominal muscles are thus expanded. The natural contraction of these muscles applies gentle pressures on the lungs, thereby expelling the air. In horn playing, since largeamounts of air are necessary, all these processes are magnified.
1) The entire lungs (not just the lower part) are filled with air. However, at this point I must emphasize strongly that one of the prerequisites of correct breathing is that the lower part of the lungs is filled first. Otherwise "chest breathing" will result. I have found that the suggestion to breath along the bottom of the mouth (or tongue) helps students to fill the lower lungs first. Conversely, I have noticed that breathing along the roof of the mouth leads easily to chest breathing.
2) The diaphragm and abdominal muscles expand considerably more than in ordinary breathing, to the extent that one can feel expansion almost around the entire circle of the waist, including the back. This is what has led to the popular misconception that the 'diaphragm' is a circular ring-like muscle around the waist.
3) The entire process from the moment of inhaling to the expulsion of most of the air takes
correspondingly longer than in ordinary breathing.
I would also like to point out that the intake of air required for horn playing is so considerable, that this inhaling does (and should) become audible- -as when sucking in air. Often students feel that this is wrong and try to inhibit this audible intake of air. It stands to reason that if the lungs are to be filled, and if the inhaling process is to take only a short moment, the 'rush' of air through the lips will produce a sound. Students should therefore not shrink from this, and should rather cultivate reasonably audible inhaling. As I have said, in actual playing, if the breathing is musically timed and not too jerky, it will not disrupt musical phrasing unduly. The breath will become a part of the music.
We have now inhaled and are ready to expel the air into the mouthpiece and horn. As in normal exhaling, the abdominal and diaphragm muscles will return to their original state of relaxed tension. For purposes of horn playing, however, an extra degree of control must be imposed. Different phrases will require different ways of expelling air, in large to small amounts and at slow to fast speeds. We can now really appreciate the importance of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, since they alone can control pressure on the lungs and, therefore, the amount and speed with which air is expelled. These muscles act as a kind of bellows. The return of the muscles to their normal positions can, in other words, be delayed or accelerated, thus affecting in a parallel manner the flow of air into the horn through lips and mouthpiece. At first, these muscles will be found to be weak, too weak at any rate to exercise absolute control over the flow of air. But over a period of months, with practice and conscious application of these muscles, they will gain in strength and control.
So far I have discussed only one aspect of the breathing out process. There is, however, another area which is part of the overall process of producing and controlling a horn tone. That is the control exercised upon the air stream by the embouchure. If the diaphragm is the motor and driving power in this process, the embouchure can be said to act as a rudder or steering device. It directs the air and controls the speed with which the air enters the mouthpiece. Both of these factors control the speed of vibration in the lips and the horn, and in turn the pitch and tone quality. If we think of the lungs as the source of air, the embouchure (and at a further stage the horn itself) represent not only the destination of the air but a wall of resistant and controlling pressure.
The principle involved is a very simple one: the flow of a steady unchanging stream of air fed by the source (the lungs) can be increased by closing the opening through which it issues (the embouchure), just as, in a stream, a sudden narrowing of the river bed will cause a relative acceleration in the flow of water.
As the lungs gradually empty, the stream of air thins out. To compensate for this loss of air, the diaphragm muscle has to increase its pressure on the lungs, so that the flow of air may be kept steady and undiminished. If it is not thus sustained, the tone will naturally decrease in volume and probably in pitch. This is why students (and even professionals) find the ends of long phrases harder to control than the middle. The degree of pressure exerted by the diaphragm and embouchure is dictated by the ear, which is presumably listening the sound as it is produced. The more sensitive the ear, the more demands it will place upon the diaphragm and embouchure.
The air stream, and in turn, the tone, are also controlled by another organ, the larynx, which functions as still another element in this four-way chain of pressure I am attempting to describe. The larynx (situated in the trachea) is used in horn playing almost to the degree that it is used in singing. And of all the points of control I have mentioned it is probably the most versatile. The larynx is a valve-like organ which at one extreme can shut off the air from the lungs completely, at another (when open) can let the air rush out entirely unrestrained, and can, of course, adopt all gradations between these two extremes. To illustrate its function briefly: in playing a loud sustained note the larynx must be wide open; on a very soft sustained note it must close sufficiently (again the ear is the final judge) to slow down the flow of air to the proper volume. The larynx's other important function is to end a note. This is achieved by closing this valve still further to the point where the air stream being allowed to pass is not sufficient to vibrate the lips and horn. This feeling can be easily practised by singing a sustained "ahh" syllable and gradually choking the sound off with the larynx. Obviously, the degree of abruptness with which a note is to be stopped can be easily controlled through a parallel abruptness in the closing of the larynx.
All four points of control (diaphragm pressure, larynx pressure, embouchure pressure, and the unalterable resistance from the mouthpiece and the horn) function in a completely integrated inseparable manner, and only diligent and analytical practising will give the player the necessary control, assuming that he is not (as some players indeed are) a "natural' talent, to whom all these technical processes are already second nature.
Daniel Bourgue (1937-2023) was solo horn of the Orchestre du Théâtre National de l’Opéra de Paris from 1964 to 1989.
It is through respiration that we absorb our vital energy - the energy needed to preserve life and health through complete regeneration of every cell in the body (absorption of oxygen and elimination of carbon dioxide), and also the energy needed for an sustained effort. This is why horn players must, before all else, learn to control and improve our breathing.
The total lung capacity of an average individual is about 5 liters of air. The residual air, i.e. that which remains permanently in the lungs, is about 1.5 liters, leaving us a useful volume of about 3.5. In normal breathing, however, the average person uses only 1/10 of their lung capacity at each breath. This is quite insufficient when playing an instrument such as the horn.
In playing, the rhythm of breathing is completely different - the performer breathes in more quickly and out more slowly. In addition, the volume of air used and lung pressure when breathing out are much higher than they are normally. The respiratory muscles must therefore adapt so that pressure is sustained throughout playing.
The diaphragm, in addition to its respiratory function (similar to that of a pump), compresses the viscera when it is lowered to promote venous circulation from the abdomen towards the thorax.
There are three levels of respiration:
1) Deep respiration (diaphragmatic)
2) Medium respiration (thoracic)
3) Superficial respiration (clavicular)
We generally use only thoracic breathing when we are awake. However, diaphragmatic (or abdominal respiration) is the most natural way of breathing and can be observed in animals and young children. This is also how we breathe when we are asleep.
The diaphragm is a muscle separating the abdomen from the thorax. Its function is purely respiratory and it moves vertically. When it is lowered, air fills the lower part of the lungs (increasing the volume of air absorbed). When it is raised, it drives the air out. Its action is thus similar to that of the piston of a bicycle pump or a syringe.
Ideally, the first warming-up exercise every day should be a breathing exercise. Here is a very simple one that's purpose is to make the player aware of the different types of respiration as well as regulate anxiety.
Breathe in through the nose and out through the mouth preferably while lying down. To aid concentration and obtain the most benefit, do this exercise with a metronome set at ♩= 60 or at the rate of your heartbeat.
1) Empty your lungs to the maximum.
2) Breathe in deeply for 3 counts, starting with the bottom of the lungs. The abdomen will become slightly distended. Continue breathing in, expanding the thorax. Raise the shoulders slightly to fill the lop of the lungs.
3) Hold your breath for 12 seconds to increase gaseous exchanges.
4) Breath out for 6 counts, starting with the top (lower the shoulders), then the middle and finally the abdomen.
Repeat the cycle several times. With a little training you will easily be able to multiply the counts by two, four or more. This should be effortless. Do not strain, particularly at the beginning.
ABDOMINAL RESPIRATION
Breathing in
Breathe in as much air as possible through the mouth as quickly as possible and hold it in the lower part of the lungs. The throat must be wide open. To do this, think of the sound "Ho". Concentrate on the sound made by the air as enters the windpipe. It must not be a high whistling sound (a sign that throat is contracted), but deep. If it makes you yawn, it shows that you are breathing deeply.
Feel your abdominal muscles below the navel and notice if the are tensed (but not contracted) while you are breathing in. The abdomen above the navel expands slightly during breathing in.
It is very important for the muscles lying beneath the navel, known as the abdominal belt, are tensed, because they will form the starting point for correct breathing out. This will increase pressure inside the abdomen, and this pressure will be very useful, particularly in the high register.
Be careful not to raise the shoulders while breathing in, as air held in the upper and central parts of the lungs is useless for breathing out while playing. On the contrary, it is harmful, because it causes tension in the throat and face.
Breathing out
To prevent contraction and jerkiness, there must be no break between breathing in and breathing out. (This smoothness is absolutely essential for rapid breathing in which the musical phrase is not interrupted). Push forwards, maintaining constant pressure of the abdominal muscles and constant tension of the diaphragm.
It is important not to pull in the abdomen because, contrary to what is widely believed, the thrust of the diaphragm is vertical, not horizontal. Pulling in the abdomen while breathing out inevitably causes slackening of the diaphragm and loss of pressure. This means a large proportion of the air breathed in can't be used, and the player will have to expel this stale residual air before he breathes in again.
Blow into the mouthpiece in the playing position, but with the lips apart so that no sound is produced. The throat and in particular the opening between the vocal cords (the glottis) must be relaxed. To do this, think of the sound "HA" all the time you are breathing out. The H will also create slight pressure in the diaphragm as soon as the note starts to be produced. The sound held will be
more stable and even from the beginning.
To start with, repeat this exercise several times concentrating only on breath production, the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm. Be conscious of every movement of you body. The facial muscles should not move during breathing out, nor must the lips, which must remain motionless, in the playing position.
Then continue the same exercise, vibrating the lips in the mouthpiece with the breath alone, without attacking or tonguing, always thinking of the sound "HA" and breathing out gently.
BREATH CONTROL
Just as the quality and stability of the sound of a string instrument depend on the bow, a wind instrument's sound is directly related to the breath. This air column also has a vital function in brass instruments. It is by adjusting its intensity and pressure that we change from one register to another, and play smooth legato and light, flexible staccato.
How do we adjust this air column? It is done neither with the lips, whose sole function is to vibrate like a double reed, nor with the diaphragm, which only maintains constant pressure. We are going to use the phonatory organs, principally the tongue and glottis (the opening between the vocal cords). It may seem difficult to control the opening of the glottis. In fact this can be done very easily by using vowels, as in speaking or singing. We shall do it essentially with the tongue, the most flexible and mobile of all organs. Its importance in producing sounds is so obvious that the word is also used to mean language.
The vowels can be roughly grouped in three categories :
Low: "ah" (as in awe)
Middle: "eh" (as in bed)
High: "ee" (as in machine).
Each of these vowels (ah, eh, ee) is produced by a particular position of the tongue in the buccal cavity. If we take the vowel "ah" as a starting point, the tongue is almost flat in the mouth. In this position, the two resonators formed by the mouth and pharynx have the same volume.
When we proceed from "ah" and then from "eh" to "ee", the tongue gradually rises towards the palate, reducing the volume of the mouth and increasing that of the pharynx. The use of vowels in playing serves two purposes - it increases pressure in the high register and at the same time it opens the pharynx more widely.
The different positions of the tongue in pronouncing vowels and the volumes of the resonators in each position. We shall therefore use these vowels with these exercises in flexibility in all the registers, taking "ah" as a starting point for the low register and "ee" for the high. The change from one vowel to the other will be made gradually and imperceptibly via the mid-vowel "eh".
In the high register it is also essential to think of these vowels as though they were being sung falsetto. This has the effect of contracting the uvula and thus closing the nasal fossae. It saves energy and gives the air column extra pressure. In addition, in this action, the soft palate lifts, increasing the volume of the pharynx.
The tongue should be behind the teeth. It acts as a valve, releasing the air at each emission. The movement must be quick and flexible, particularly for staccato. This movement of the tip of the tongue must therefore be a downward one, and not from front to back.
In the pronunciation of vowels, the tongue is raised towards the palate, but the lip remains motionless behind the teeth. In falsetto singing, the uvula prevents the air from entering the nasal fossae. Start each of these exercises by singing. This will give you experience of faster and clearer performance by vowel change, particularly for trills and wide intervals.
Continue the exercises with the mouthpiece alone, observing yourself in a mirror. Find the ideal angle between the mouthpiece and your lips, giving the greatest vibration. The facial expression shows what the performer feel when he plays. A frown, and looking upwards during a rising phrase often show a contracted throat (this can be remedied by changing to falsetto). It is by concentrating on yourself that, through breath control, you will gradually achieve more relaxed, flexible, precise playing, opening the way to a more expressive performance.
from Gunther Schuller: Horn Technique
Inhaling should be done, especially at phrase beginnings, in a very relaxed yet lung-filling manner. The hasty, jerking breath tends to tighten neck, shoulder, and stomach muscles.
In general (and this is one of the most important factors in correct breathing) the taking in of air should always occur in time to the music being performed. This will insure relaxed inhaling, and will give to the breathing process a musicality specifically identified with the music being played. After a while, it gives the player an instinctive sense of timing in the several coordinated actions necessary prior to attacking a note, which will enable him almost to guarantee a note.
The end of the inhaling process should be as closely connected as possible to the beginning of the breathing out of air. Both inhaling and exhaling should be thought of as a single uninterrupted act.
Hesitating between breathing in and expelling the air again serves no purpose other than to tighten various body muscles which should remain in a state of "relaxed tension" for free, natural playing. There is one exception, however. In the upper register, most players on an initial attack like to hesitate for the purpose of tightening the diaphragm into a strong supporting position. However, I wish to emphasize that this momentary hesitation is measured in fractions of a second, and is not long enough to choke back the air stream, unnecessarily tightening the neck and shoulder muscles.
At this point I must digress for a while to speak about the role of the 'diaphragm' in breathing. This term is bandied about a great deal, but in general many teachers and players still do not properly understand the nature and function of the diaphragm.
The diaphragm is a muscle which is situated in a horizontal position directly above the waist, and is shaped somewhat ike a shallow round tent. The '"dome" of this tent is flattened out when we inhale, thus allowing the lower lungs to fill with air. And like all muscles, the diaphragm muscle, once contracted or expanded, must return to its original position and natural degree of tension. It is this natural tendency of the diaphragm to contract, after having been expanded, that is the prime factor in achieving what we call "breath control". The diaphragm is the only muscle with which the release of air from the lungs can be controlled, since the diaphragm is the only major muscle touching the lower lungs. This is also why breathing by filling only the upper part of the lungs(chest breathing) is dangerous in horn playing. There are no muscles in the chest which can exert pressure on the lungs with relaxed control. Therefore the air issues from the lungs in an uncontrolled haphazard manner. In horn playing the process of inhaling and exhaling is actually a more or less intensified version of normal everyday breathing, which even the casual observer will note as a slight alternating in-and-out of the abdominal muscles.
In horn playing these movements are larger and more intense. But beyond this intensification, it is well to remember that the basic procedure is exactly the same as in normal breathing.
In normal inhaling only the lower section of the lungs is filled. The diaphragm muscle (tangent to the lungs) and adjacent abdominal muscles are thus expanded. The natural contraction of these muscles applies gentle pressures on the lungs, thereby expelling the air. In horn playing, since largeamounts of air are necessary, all these processes are magnified.
1) The entire lungs (not just the lower part) are filled with air. However, at this point I must emphasize strongly that one of the prerequisites of correct breathing is that the lower part of the lungs is filled first. Otherwise "chest breathing" will result. I have found that the suggestion to breath along the bottom of the mouth (or tongue) helps students to fill the lower lungs first. Conversely, I have noticed that breathing along the roof of the mouth leads easily to chest breathing.
2) The diaphragm and abdominal muscles expand considerably more than in ordinary breathing, to the extent that one can feel expansion almost around the entire circle of the waist, including the back. This is what has led to the popular misconception that the 'diaphragm' is a circular ring-like muscle around the waist.
3) The entire process from the moment of inhaling to the expulsion of most of the air takes
correspondingly longer than in ordinary breathing.
I would also like to point out that the intake of air required for horn playing is so considerable, that this inhaling does (and should) become audible- -as when sucking in air. Often students feel that this is wrong and try to inhibit this audible intake of air. It stands to reason that if the lungs are to be filled, and if the inhaling process is to take only a short moment, the 'rush' of air through the lips will produce a sound. Students should therefore not shrink from this, and should rather cultivate reasonably audible inhaling. As I have said, in actual playing, if the breathing is musically timed and not too jerky, it will not disrupt musical phrasing unduly. The breath will become a part of the music.
We have now inhaled and are ready to expel the air into the mouthpiece and horn. As in normal exhaling, the abdominal and diaphragm muscles will return to their original state of relaxed tension. For purposes of horn playing, however, an extra degree of control must be imposed. Different phrases will require different ways of expelling air, in large to small amounts and at slow to fast speeds. We can now really appreciate the importance of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, since they alone can control pressure on the lungs and, therefore, the amount and speed with which air is expelled. These muscles act as a kind of bellows. The return of the muscles to their normal positions can, in other words, be delayed or accelerated, thus affecting in a parallel manner the flow of air into the horn through lips and mouthpiece. At first, these muscles will be found to be weak, too weak at any rate to exercise absolute control over the flow of air. But over a period of months, with practice and conscious application of these muscles, they will gain in strength and control.
So far I have discussed only one aspect of the breathing out process. There is, however, another area which is part of the overall process of producing and controlling a horn tone. That is the control exercised upon the air stream by the embouchure. If the diaphragm is the motor and driving power in this process, the embouchure can be said to act as a rudder or steering device. It directs the air and controls the speed with which the air enters the mouthpiece. Both of these factors control the speed of vibration in the lips and the horn, and in turn the pitch and tone quality. If we think of the lungs as the source of air, the embouchure (and at a further stage the horn itself) represent not only the destination of the air but a wall of resistant and controlling pressure.
The principle involved is a very simple one: the flow of a steady unchanging stream of air fed by the source (the lungs) can be increased by closing the opening through which it issues (the embouchure), just as, in a stream, a sudden narrowing of the river bed will cause a relative acceleration in the flow of water.
As the lungs gradually empty, the stream of air thins out. To compensate for this loss of air, the diaphragm muscle has to increase its pressure on the lungs, so that the flow of air may be kept steady and undiminished. If it is not thus sustained, the tone will naturally decrease in volume and probably in pitch. This is why students (and even professionals) find the ends of long phrases harder to control than the middle. The degree of pressure exerted by the diaphragm and embouchure is dictated by the ear, which is presumably listening the sound as it is produced. The more sensitive the ear, the more demands it will place upon the diaphragm and embouchure.
The air stream, and in turn, the tone, are also controlled by another organ, the larynx, which functions as still another element in this four-way chain of pressure I am attempting to describe. The larynx (situated in the trachea) is used in horn playing almost to the degree that it is used in singing. And of all the points of control I have mentioned it is probably the most versatile. The larynx is a valve-like organ which at one extreme can shut off the air from the lungs completely, at another (when open) can let the air rush out entirely unrestrained, and can, of course, adopt all gradations between these two extremes. To illustrate its function briefly: in playing a loud sustained note the larynx must be wide open; on a very soft sustained note it must close sufficiently (again the ear is the final judge) to slow down the flow of air to the proper volume. The larynx's other important function is to end a note. This is achieved by closing this valve still further to the point where the air stream being allowed to pass is not sufficient to vibrate the lips and horn. This feeling can be easily practised by singing a sustained "ahh" syllable and gradually choking the sound off with the larynx. Obviously, the degree of abruptness with which a note is to be stopped can be easily controlled through a parallel abruptness in the closing of the larynx.
All four points of control (diaphragm pressure, larynx pressure, embouchure pressure, and the unalterable resistance from the mouthpiece and the horn) function in a completely integrated inseparable manner, and only diligent and analytical practising will give the player the necessary control, assuming that he is not (as some players indeed are) a "natural' talent, to whom all these technical processes are already second nature.